WEBSOCKETS(1)

NAME
websockets - websockets Documentation

pypi-v pypi-pyversions pypi-l pypi-wheel tests

websockets is a library for building WebSocket servers and clients in Python with a focus on correctness and simplicity.

Built on top of asyncio, Python's standard asynchronous I/O framework, it provides an elegant coroutine-based API.

Here's how a client sends and receives messages:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import asyncio
import websockets
async def hello():
    uri = "ws://localhost:8765"
    async with websockets.connect(uri) as websocket:
        await websocket.send("Hello world!")
        await websocket.recv()
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(hello())

And here's an echo server:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import asyncio
import websockets
async def echo(websocket, path):
    async for message in websocket:
        await websocket.send(message)
start_server = websockets.serve(echo, "localhost", 8765)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

Do you like it? Let's dive in!

TUTORIALS

If you're new to websockets, this is the place to start.

  Getting started

  Requirements

websockets requires Python ≥ 3.6.1.

You should use the latest version of Python if possible. If you're using an older version, be aware that for each minor version (3.x), only the latest bugfix release (3.x.y) is officially supported.

  Installation

Install websockets with:

pip install websockets

  Basic example

Here's a WebSocket server example.

It reads a name from the client, sends a greeting, and closes the connection.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WS server example
import asyncio
import websockets
async def hello(websocket, path):
    name = await websocket.recv()
    print(f"< {name}")
    greeting = f"Hello {name}!"
    await websocket.send(greeting)
    print(f"> {greeting}")
start_server = websockets.serve(hello, "localhost", 8765)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

On the server side, websockets executes the handler coroutine hello once for each WebSocket connection. It closes the connection when the handler coroutine returns.

Here's a corresponding WebSocket client example.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WS client example
import asyncio
import websockets
async def hello():
    uri = "ws://localhost:8765"
    async with websockets.connect(uri) as websocket:
        name = input("What's your name? ")
        await websocket.send(name)
        print(f"> {name}")
        greeting = await websocket.recv()
        print(f"< {greeting}")
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(hello())

Using connect() as an asynchronous context manager ensures the connection is closed before exiting the hello coroutine.

  Secure example

Secure WebSocket connections improve confidentiality and also reliability because they reduce the risk of interference by bad proxies.

The WSS protocol is to WS what HTTPS is to HTTP: the connection is encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS) — which is often referred to as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). WSS requires TLS certificates like HTTPS.

Here's how to adapt the server example to provide secure connections. See the documentation of the ssl module for configuring the context securely.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WSS (WS over TLS) server example, with a self-signed certificate
import asyncio
import pathlib
import ssl
import websockets
async def hello(websocket, path):
    name = await websocket.recv()
    print(f"< {name}")
    greeting = f"Hello {name}!"
    await websocket.send(greeting)
    print(f"> {greeting}")
ssl_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
localhost_pem = pathlib.Path(__file__).with_name("localhost.pem")
ssl_context.load_cert_chain(localhost_pem)
start_server = websockets.serve(
    hello, "localhost", 8765, ssl=ssl_context
)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

Here's how to adapt the client.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WSS (WS over TLS) client example, with a self-signed certificate
import asyncio
import pathlib
import ssl
import websockets
ssl_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
localhost_pem = pathlib.Path(__file__).with_name("localhost.pem")
ssl_context.load_verify_locations(localhost_pem)
async def hello():
    uri = "wss://localhost:8765"
    async with websockets.connect(
        uri, ssl=ssl_context
    ) as websocket:
        name = input("What's your name? ")
        await websocket.send(name)
        print(f"> {name}")
        greeting = await websocket.recv()
        print(f"< {greeting}")
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(hello())

This client needs a context because the server uses a self-signed certificate.

A client connecting to a secure WebSocket server with a valid certificate (i.e. signed by a CA that your Python installation trusts) can simply pass ssl=True to connect() instead of building a context.

  Browser-based example

Here's an example of how to run a WebSocket server and connect from a browser.

Run this script in a console:

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WS server that sends messages at random intervals
import asyncio
import datetime
import random
import websockets
async def time(websocket, path):
    while True:
        now = datetime.datetime.utcnow().isoformat() + "Z"
        await websocket.send(now)
        await asyncio.sleep(random.random() * 3)
start_server = websockets.serve(time, "127.0.0.1", 5678)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

Then open this HTML file in a browser.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
    <head>
        <title>WebSocket demo</title>
    </head>
    <body>
        <script>
            var ws = new WebSocket("ws://127.0.0.1:5678/"),
                messages = document.createElement('ul');
            ws.onmessage = function (event) {
                var messages = document.getElementsByTagName('ul')[0],
                    message = document.createElement('li'),
                    content = document.createTextNode(event.data);
                message.appendChild(content);
                messages.appendChild(message);
            };
            document.body.appendChild(messages);
        </script>
    </body>
</html>

  Synchronization example

A WebSocket server can receive events from clients, process them to update the application state, and synchronize the resulting state across clients.

Here's an example where any client can increment or decrement a counter. Updates are propagated to all connected clients.

The concurrency model of asyncio guarantees that updates are serialized.

Run this script in a console:

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WS server example that synchronizes state across clients
import asyncio
import json
import logging
import websockets
logging.basicConfig()
STATE = {"value": 0}
USERS = set()
def state_event():
    return json.dumps({"type": "state", **STATE})
def users_event():
    return json.dumps({"type": "users", "count": len(USERS)})
async def notify_state():
    if USERS:  # asyncio.wait doesn't accept an empty list
        message = state_event()
        await asyncio.wait([user.send(message) for user in USERS])
async def notify_users():
    if USERS:  # asyncio.wait doesn't accept an empty list
        message = users_event()
        await asyncio.wait([user.send(message) for user in USERS])
async def register(websocket):
    USERS.add(websocket)
    await notify_users()
async def unregister(websocket):
    USERS.remove(websocket)
    await notify_users()
async def counter(websocket, path):
    # register(websocket) sends user_event() to websocket
    await register(websocket)
    try:
        await websocket.send(state_event())
        async for message in websocket:
            data = json.loads(message)
            if data["action"] == "minus":
                STATE["value"] -= 1
                await notify_state()
            elif data["action"] == "plus":
                STATE["value"] += 1
                await notify_state()
            else:
                logging.error("unsupported event: %s", data)
    finally:
        await unregister(websocket)
start_server = websockets.serve(counter, "localhost", 6789)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

Then open this HTML file in several browsers.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
    <head>
        <title>WebSocket demo</title>
        <style type="text/css">
            body {
                font-family: "Courier New", sans-serif;
                text-align: center;
            }
            .buttons {
                font-size: 4em;
                display: flex;
                justify-content: center;
            }
            .button, .value {
                line-height: 1;
                padding: 2rem;
                margin: 2rem;
                border: medium solid;
                min-height: 1em;
                min-width: 1em;
            }
            .button {
                cursor: pointer;
                user-select: none;
            }
            .minus {
                color: red;
            }
            .plus {
                color: green;
            }
            .value {
                min-width: 2em;
            }
            .state {
                font-size: 2em;
            }
        </style>
    </head>
    <body>
        <div class="buttons">
            <div class="minus button">-</div>
            <div class="value">?</div>
            <div class="plus button">+</div>
        </div>
        <div class="state">
            <span class="users">?</span> online
        </div>
        <script>
            var minus = document.querySelector('.minus'),
                plus = document.querySelector('.plus'),
                value = document.querySelector('.value'),
                users = document.querySelector('.users'),
                websocket = new WebSocket("ws://127.0.0.1:6789/");
            minus.onclick = function (event) {
                websocket.send(JSON.stringify({action: 'minus'}));
            }
            plus.onclick = function (event) {
                websocket.send(JSON.stringify({action: 'plus'}));
            }
            websocket.onmessage = function (event) {
                data = JSON.parse(event.data);
                switch (data.type) {
                    case 'state':
                        value.textContent = data.value;
                        break;
                    case 'users':
                        users.textContent = (
                            data.count.toString() + " user" +
                            (data.count == 1 ? "" : "s"));
                        break;
                    default:
                        console.error(
                            "unsupported event", data);
                }
            };
        </script>
    </body>
</html>

  Common patterns

You will usually want to process several messages during the lifetime of a connection. Therefore you must write a loop. Here are the basic patterns for building a WebSocket server.

  Consumer

For receiving messages and passing them to a consumer coroutine:

async def consumer_handler(websocket, path):
    async for message in websocket:
        await consumer(message)

In this example, consumer represents your business logic for processing messages received on the WebSocket connection.

Iteration terminates when the client disconnects.

  Producer

For getting messages from a producer coroutine and sending them:

async def producer_handler(websocket, path):
    while True:
        message = await producer()
        await websocket.send(message)

In this example, producer represents your business logic for generating messages to send on the WebSocket connection.

send() raises a ConnectionClosed exception when the client disconnects, which breaks out of the while True loop.

  Both

You can read and write messages on the same connection by combining the two patterns shown above and running the two tasks in parallel:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    consumer_task = asyncio.ensure_future(
        consumer_handler(websocket, path))
    producer_task = asyncio.ensure_future(
        producer_handler(websocket, path))
    done, pending = await asyncio.wait(
        [consumer_task, producer_task],
        return_when=asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED,
    )
    for task in pending:
        task.cancel()

  Registration

As shown in the synchronization example above, if you need to maintain a list of currently connected clients, you must register them when they connect and unregister them when they disconnect.

connected = set()
async def handler(websocket, path):
    # Register.
    connected.add(websocket)
    try:
        # Broadcast a message to all connected clients.
        await asyncio.wait([ws.send("Hello!") for ws in connected])
        await asyncio.sleep(10)
    finally:
        # Unregister.
        connected.remove(websocket)

This simplistic example keeps track of connected clients in memory. This only works as long as you run a single process. In a practical application, the handler may subscribe to some channels on a message broker, for example.

  That's all!

The design of the websockets API was driven by simplicity.

You don't have to worry about performing the opening or the closing handshake, answering pings, or any other behavior required by the specification.

websockets handles all this under the hood so you don't have to.

  One more thing...

websockets provides an interactive client:

$ python -m websockets wss://echo.websocket.org/

  FAQ

NOTE: Many questions asked in websockets' issue tracker are actually about asyncio. Python's documentation about developing with asyncio is a good complement.

  Server side

  Why does the server close the connection after processing one message?

Your connection handler exits after processing one message. Write a loop to process multiple messages.

For example, if your handler looks like this:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    print(websocket.recv())

change it like this:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    async for message in websocket:
        print(message)

Don't feel bad if this happens to you — it's the most common question in websockets' issue tracker :-)

  Why can only one client connect at a time?

Your connection handler blocks the event loop. Look for blocking calls. Any call that may take some time must be asynchronous.

For example, if you have:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    time.sleep(1)

change it to:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    await asyncio.sleep(1)

This is part of learning asyncio. It isn't specific to websockets.

See also Python's documentation about running blocking code.

  How can I pass additional arguments to the connection handler?

You can bind additional arguments to the connection handler with functools.partial():

import asyncio
import functools
import websockets
async def handler(websocket, path, extra_argument):
    ...
bound_handler = functools.partial(handler, extra_argument='spam')
start_server = websockets.serve(bound_handler, ...)

Another way to achieve this result is to define the handler coroutine in a scope where the extra_argument variable exists instead of injecting it through an argument.

  How do I get access HTTP headers, for example cookies?

To access HTTP headers during the WebSocket handshake, you can override process_request:

async def process_request(self, path, request_headers):
    cookies = request_header["Cookie"]

Once the connection is established, they're available in request_headers:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    cookies = websocket.request_headers["Cookie"]

  How do I get the IP address of the client connecting to my server?

It's available in remote_address:

async def handler(websocket, path):
    remote_ip = websocket.remote_address[0]

  How do I set which IP addresses my server listens to?

Look at the host argument of create_server().

serve() accepts the same arguments as create_server().

  How do I close a connection properly?

websockets takes care of closing the connection when the handler exits.

  How do I run a HTTP server and WebSocket server on the same port?

This isn't supported.

Providing a HTTP server is out of scope for websockets. It only aims at providing a WebSocket server.

There's limited support for returning HTTP responses with the process_request hook. If you need more, pick a HTTP server and run it separately.

  Client side

  How do I close a connection properly?

The easiest is to use connect() as a context manager:

async with connect(...) as websocket:
    ...

  How do I reconnect automatically when the connection drops?

See issue 414.

  How do I stop a client that is continuously processing messages?

You can close the connection.

Here's an example that terminates cleanly when it receives SIGTERM on Unix:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import asyncio
import signal
import websockets
async def client():
    uri = "ws://localhost:8765"
    async with websockets.connect(uri) as websocket:
        # Close the connection when receiving SIGTERM.
        loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
        loop.add_signal_handler(
            signal.SIGTERM, loop.create_task, websocket.close())
        # Process messages received on the connection.
        async for message in websocket:
            ...
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(client())

  How do I disable TLS/SSL certificate verification?

Look at the ssl argument of create_connection().

connect() accepts the same arguments as create_connection().

  Both sides

  How do I do two things in parallel? How do I integrate with another coroutine?

You must start two tasks, which the event loop will run concurrently. You can achieve this with asyncio.gather() or asyncio.wait().

This is also part of learning asyncio and not specific to websockets.

Keep track of the tasks and make sure they terminate or you cancel them when the connection terminates.

  How do I create channels or topics?

websockets doesn't have built-in publish / subscribe for these use cases.

Depending on the scale of your service, a simple in-memory implementation may do the job or you may need an external publish / subscribe component.

  What does ConnectionClosedError: code = 1006 mean?

If you're seeing this traceback in the logs of a server:

Error in connection handler
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
asyncio.streams.IncompleteReadError: 0 bytes read on a total of 2 expected bytes
The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
websockets.exceptions.ConnectionClosedError: code = 1006 (connection closed abnormally [internal]), no reason

or if a client crashes with this traceback:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ConnectionResetError: [Errno 54] Connection reset by peer
The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
websockets.exceptions.ConnectionClosedError: code = 1006 (connection closed abnormally [internal]), no reason

it means that the TCP connection was lost. As a consequence, the WebSocket connection was closed without receiving a close frame, which is abnormal.

You can catch and handle ConnectionClosed to prevent it from being logged.

There are several reasons why long-lived connections may be lost:

•   End-user devices tend to lose network connectivity often and unpredictably because they can move out of wireless network coverage, get unplugged from a wired network, enter airplane mode, be put to sleep, etc.

•   HTTP load balancers or proxies that aren't configured for long-lived connections may terminate connections after a short amount of time, usually 30 seconds.

    If you're facing a reproducible issue, enable debug logs to see when and how connections are closed.

  How can I pass additional arguments to a custom protocol subclass?

You can bind additional arguments to the protocol factory with functools.partial():

import asyncio
import functools
import websockets
class MyServerProtocol(websockets.WebSocketServerProtocol):
    def __init__(self, extra_argument, *args, **kwargs):
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
        # do something with extra_argument
create_protocol = functools.partial(MyServerProtocol, extra_argument='spam')
start_server = websockets.serve(..., create_protocol=create_protocol)

This example was for a server. The same pattern applies on a client.

  Why do I get the error: module 'websockets' has no attribute '...'?

Often, this is because you created a script called websockets.py in your current working directory. Then import websockets imports this module instead of the websockets library.

  Are there onopen, onmessage, onerror, and onclose callbacks?

No, there aren't.

websockets provides high-level, coroutine-based APIs. Compared to callbacks, coroutines make it easier to manage control flow in concurrent code.

If you prefer callback-based APIs, you should use another library.

  Can I use websockets synchronously, without async / await?

You can convert every asynchronous call to a synchronous call by wrapping it in asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(...).

If this turns out to be impractical, you should use another library.

  Miscellaneous

  How do I set a timeout on recv()?

Use wait_for():

await asyncio.wait_for(websocket.recv(), timeout=10)

This technique works for most APIs, except for asynchronous context managers. See issue 574.

  How do I keep idle connections open?

websockets sends pings at 20 seconds intervals to keep the connection open.

In closes the connection if it doesn't get a pong within 20 seconds.

You can adjust this behavior with ping_interval and ping_timeout.

  How do I respond to pings?

websockets takes care of responding to pings with pongs.

  Is there a Python 2 version?

No, there isn't.

websockets builds upon asyncio which requires Python 3.

HOW-TO GUIDES

These guides will help you build and deploy a websockets application.

  Cheat sheet

  Server

•   Write a coroutine that handles a single connection. It receives a WebSocket protocol instance and the URI path in argument.

•   Call recv() and send() to receive and send messages at any time.

•   When recv() or send() raises ConnectionClosed, clean up and exit. If you started other asyncio.Task, terminate them before exiting.

•   If you aren't awaiting recv(), consider awaiting wait_closed() to detect quickly when the connection is closed.

•   You may ping() or pong() if you wish but it isn't needed in general.

•   Create a server with serve() which is similar to asyncio's create_server(). You can also use it as an asynchronous context manager.

•   The server takes care of establishing connections, then lets the handler execute the application logic, and finally closes the connection after the handler exits normally or with an exception.

•   For advanced customization, you may subclass WebSocketServerProtocol and pass either this subclass or a factory function as the create_protocol argument.

  Client

•   Create a client with connect() which is similar to asyncio's create_connection(). You can also use it as an asynchronous context manager.

•   For advanced customization, you may subclass WebSocketClientProtocol and pass either this subclass or a factory function as the create_protocol argument.

•   Call recv() and send() to receive and send messages at any time.

•   You may ping() or pong() if you wish but it isn't needed in general.

•   If you aren't using connect() as a context manager, call close() to terminate the connection.

  Debugging

If you don't understand what websockets is doing, enable logging:

import logging
logger = logging.getLogger('websockets')
logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())

The logs contain:

•   Exceptions in the connection handler at the ERROR level

•   Exceptions in the opening or closing handshake at the INFO level

•   All frames at the DEBUG level — this can be very verbose

    If you're new to asyncio, you will certainly encounter issues that are related to asynchronous programming in general rather than to websockets in particular. Fortunately Python's official documentation provides advice to develop with asyncio. Check it out: it's invaluable!

  Deployment

  Application server

The author of websockets isn't aware of best practices for deploying network services based on asyncio, let alone application servers.

You can run a script similar to the server example, inside a supervisor if you deem that useful.

You can also add a wrapper to daemonize the process. Third-party libraries provide solutions for that.

If you can share knowledge on this topic, please file an issue. Thanks!

  Graceful shutdown

You may want to close connections gracefully when shutting down the server, perhaps after executing some cleanup logic. There are two ways to achieve this with the object returned by serve():

•   using it as a asynchronous context manager, or

•   calling its close() method, then waiting for its wait_closed() method to complete.

    On Unix systems, shutdown is usually triggered by sending a signal.

    Here's a full example for handling SIGTERM on Unix:

    #!/usr/bin/env python
    import asyncio
    import signal
    import websockets
    async def echo(websocket, path):
        async for message in websocket:
            await websocket.send(message)
    async def echo_server(stop):
        async with websockets.serve(echo, "localhost", 8765):
            await stop
    loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
    # The stop condition is set when receiving SIGTERM.
    stop = loop.create_future()
    loop.add_signal_handler(signal.SIGTERM, stop.set_result, None)
    # Run the server until the stop condition is met.
    loop.run_until_complete(echo_server(stop))

    This example is easily adapted to handle other signals. If you override the default handler for SIGINT, which raises KeyboardInterrupt, be aware that you won't be able to interrupt a program with Ctrl-C anymore when it's stuck in a loop.

    It's more difficult to achieve the same effect on Windows. Some third-party projects try to help with this problem.

    If your server doesn't run in the main thread, look at call_soon_threadsafe().

  Memory usage

In most cases, memory usage of a WebSocket server is proportional to the number of open connections. When a server handles thousands of connections, memory usage can become a bottleneck.

Memory usage of a single connection is the sum of:

1.  the baseline amount of memory websockets requires for each connection,

2.  the amount of data held in buffers before the application processes it,

3.  any additional memory allocated by the application itself.

  Baseline

Compression settings are the main factor affecting the baseline amount of memory used by each connection.

By default websockets maximizes compression rate at the expense of memory usage. If memory usage is an issue, lowering compression settings can help:

•   Context Takeover is necessary to get good performance for almost all applications. It should remain enabled.

•   Window Bits is a trade-off between memory usage and compression rate. It defaults to 15 and can be lowered. The default value isn't optimal for small, repetitive messages which are typical of WebSocket servers.

•   Memory Level is a trade-off between memory usage and compression speed. It defaults to 8 and can be lowered. A lower memory level can actually increase speed thanks to memory locality, even if the CPU does more work!

    See this example for how to configure compression settings.

    Here's how various compression settings affect memory usage of a single connection on a 64-bit system, as well a benchmark of compressed size and compression time for a corpus of small JSON documents.
    Compression | Window Bits | Memory Level | Memory usage | Size vs. default | Time vs. default
    default | 15 | 8 | 325 KiB | +0% | +0%
    _ T{ | 14 | 7 | 181 KiB | +1.5% | -5.3%
     | 13 | 6 | 110 KiB | +2.8% | -7.5%
     | 12 | 5 | 73 KiB | +4.4% | -18.9%
     | 11 | 4 | 55 KiB | +8.5% | -18.8%
    disabled | N/A | N/A | 22 KiB | N/A | N/A

    Don't assume this example is representative! Compressed size and compression time depend heavily on the kind of messages exchanged by the application!

    You can run the same benchmark for your application by creating a list of typical messages and passing it to the _benchmark function.

    This blog post by Ilya Grigorik provides more details about how compression settings affect memory usage and how to optimize them.

    This experiment by Peter Thorson suggests Window Bits = 11, Memory Level = 4 as a sweet spot for optimizing memory usage.

  Buffers

Under normal circumstances, buffers are almost always empty.

Under high load, if a server receives more messages than it can process, bufferbloat can result in excessive memory use.

By default websockets has generous limits. It is strongly recommended to adapt them to your application. When you call serve():

•   Set max_size (default: 1 MiB, UTF-8 encoded) to the maximum size of messages your application generates.

•   Set max_queue (default: 32) to the maximum number of messages your application expects to receive faster than it can process them. The queue provides burst tolerance without slowing down the TCP connection.

    Furthermore, you can lower read_limit and write_limit (default: 64 KiB) to reduce the size of buffers for incoming and outgoing data.

    The design document provides more details about buffers.

  Port sharing

The WebSocket protocol is an extension of HTTP/1.1. It can be tempting to serve both HTTP and WebSocket on the same port.

The author of websockets doesn't think that's a good idea, due to the widely different operational characteristics of HTTP and WebSocket.

websockets provide minimal support for responding to HTTP requests with the process_request() hook. Typical use cases include health checks. Here's an example:

#!/usr/bin/env python
# WS echo server with HTTP endpoint at /health/
import asyncio
import http
import websockets
async def health_check(path, request_headers):
    if path == "/health/":
        return http.HTTPStatus.OK, [], b"OK\n"
async def echo(websocket, path):
    async for message in websocket:
        await websocket.send(message)
start_server = websockets.serve(
    echo, "localhost", 8765, process_request=health_check
)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

  Extensions

The WebSocket protocol supports extensions.

At the time of writing, there's only one registered extension with a public specification, WebSocket Per-Message Deflate, specified in RFC 7692.

  Per-Message Deflate

connect() and serve() enable the Per-Message Deflate extension by default.

If you want to disable it, set compression=None:

import websockets
websockets.connect(..., compression=None)
websockets.serve(..., compression=None)

You can also configure the Per-Message Deflate extension explicitly if you want to customize compression settings:

import websockets
from websockets.extensions import permessage_deflate
websockets.connect(
    ...,
    extensions=[
        permessage_deflate.ClientPerMessageDeflateFactory(
            server_max_window_bits=11,
            client_max_window_bits=11,
            compress_settings={'memLevel': 4},
        ),
    ],
)
websockets.serve(
    ...,
    extensions=[
        permessage_deflate.ServerPerMessageDeflateFactory(
            server_max_window_bits=11,
            client_max_window_bits=11,
            compress_settings={'memLevel': 4},
        ),
    ],
)

The window bits and memory level values chosen in these examples reduce memory usage. You can read more about optimizing compression settings.

Refer to the API documentation of ClientPerMessageDeflateFactory and ServerPerMessageDeflateFactory for details.

  Writing an extension

During the opening handshake, WebSocket clients and servers negotiate which extensions will be used with which parameters. Then each frame is processed by extensions before being sent or after being received.

As a consequence, writing an extension requires implementing several classes:

•   Extension Factory: it negotiates parameters and instantiates the extension.

    Clients and servers require separate extension factories with distinct APIs.

    Extension factories are the public API of an extension.

•   Extension: it decodes incoming frames and encodes outgoing frames.

    If the extension is symmetrical, clients and servers can use the same class.

    Extensions are initialized by extension factories, so they don't need to be part of the public API of an extension.

    websockets provides abstract base classes for extension factories and extensions. See the API documentation for details on their methods:

•   ClientExtensionFactory and class:ServerExtensionFactory for :extension factories,

•   Extension for extensions.

  Deploying to Heroku

This guide describes how to deploy a websockets server to Heroku. We're going to deploy a very simple app. The process would be identical for a more realistic app.

  Create application

Deploying to Heroku requires a git repository. Let's initialize one:

$ mkdir websockets-echo
$ cd websockets-echo
$ git init .
Initialized empty Git repository in websockets-echo/.git/
$ git commit --allow-empty -m "Initial commit."
[master (root-commit) 1e7947d] Initial commit.

Follow the set-up instructions to install the Heroku CLI and to log in, if you haven't done that yet.

Then, create a Heroku app — if you follow these instructions step-by-step, you'll have to pick a different name because I'm already using websockets-echo on Heroku:

$ $ heroku create websockets-echo
Creating ⬢ websockets-echo... done
https://websockets-echo.herokuapp.com/ | https://git.heroku.com/websockets-echo.git

Here's the implementation of the app, an echo server. Save it in a file called app.py:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import asyncio
import os
import websockets
async def echo(websocket, path):
    async for message in websocket:
        await websocket.send(message)
start_server = websockets.serve(echo, "", int(os.environ["PORT"]))
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_until_complete(start_server)
asyncio.get_event_loop().run_forever()

The server relies on the $PORT environment variable to tell on which port it will listen, according to Heroku's conventions.

  Configure deployment

In order to build the app, Heroku needs to know that it depends on websockets. Create a requirements.txt file containing this line:

websockets

Heroku also needs to know how to run the app. Create a Procfile with this content:

web: python app.py

Confirm that you created the correct files and commit them to git:

$ ls
Procfile         app.py           requirements.txt
$ git add .
$ git commit -m "Deploy echo server to Heroku."
[master 8418c62] Deploy echo server to Heroku.
 3 files changed, 19 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 Procfile
 create mode 100644 app.py
 create mode 100644 requirements.txt

  Deploy

Our app is ready. Let's deploy it!

$ git push heroku master
... lots of output...
remote: -----> Launching...
remote:        Released v3
remote:        https://websockets-echo.herokuapp.com/ deployed to Heroku
remote:
remote: Verifying deploy... done.
To https://git.heroku.com/websockets-echo.git
 * [new branch]      master -> master

  Validate deployment

Of course we'd like to confirm that our application is running as expected!

Since it's a WebSocket server, we need a WebSocket client, such as the interactive client that comes with websockets.

If you're currently building a websockets server, perhaps you're already in a virtualenv where websockets is installed. If not, you can install it in a new virtualenv as follows:

$ python -m venv websockets-client
$ . websockets-client/bin/activate
$ pip install websockets

Connect the interactive client — using the name of your Heroku app instead of websockets-echo:

$ python -m websockets wss://websockets-echo.herokuapp.com/
Connected to wss://websockets-echo.herokuapp.com/.
>

Great! Our app is running!

In this example, I used a secure connection (wss://). It worked because Heroku served a valid TLS certificate for websockets-echo.herokuapp.com. An insecure connection (ws://) would also work.

Once you're connected, you can send any message and the server will echo it, then press Ctrl-D to terminate the connection:

> Hello!
< Hello!
Connection closed: code = 1000 (OK), no reason.

REFERENCE

Find all the details you could ask for, and then some.

  API

websockets provides complete client and server implementations, as shown in the getting started guide.

The process for opening and closing a WebSocket connection depends on which side you're implementing.

•   On the client side, connecting to a server with connect yields a connection object that provides methods for interacting with the connection. Your code can open a connection, then send or receive messages.

    If you use connect as an asynchronous context manager, then websockets closes the connection on exit. If not, then your code is responsible for closing the connection.

•   On the server side, serve starts listening for client connections and yields an server object that supports closing the server.

    Then, when clients connects, the server initializes a connection object and passes it to a handler coroutine, which is where your code can send or receive messages. This pattern is called inversion of control. It's common in frameworks implementing servers.

    When the handler coroutine terminates, websockets closes the connection. You may also close it in the handler coroutine if you'd like.

    Once the connection is open, the WebSocket protocol is symmetrical, except for low-level details that websockets manages under the hood. The same methods are available on client connections created with connect and on server connections passed to the connection handler in the arguments.

    At this point, websockets provides the same API — and uses the same code — for client and server connections. For convenience, common methods are documented both in the client API and server API.

  Client

  Opening a connection

await websockets.client.connect(uri, *, create_protocol=None, ping_interval=20, ping_timeout=20, close_timeout=None, max_size=1048576, max_queue=32, read_limit=65536, write_limit=65536, loop=None, compression='deflate', origin=None, extensions=None, subprotocols=None, extra_headers=None, **kwargs)
    Connect to the WebSocket server at the given uri.

    Awaiting connect() yields a WebSocketClientProtocol which can then be used to send and receive messages.

    connect() can also be used as a asynchronous context manager:

    async with connect(...) as websocket:
        ...

    In that case, the connection is closed when exiting the context.

    connect() is a wrapper around the event loop's create_connection() method. Unknown keyword arguments are passed to create_connection().

    For example, you can set the ssl keyword argument to a SSLContext to enforce some TLS settings. When connecting to a wss:// URI, if this argument isn't provided explicitly, ssl.create_default_context() is called to create a context.

    You can connect to a different host and port from those found in uri by setting host and port keyword arguments. This only changes the destination of the TCP connection. The host name from uri is still used in the TLS handshake for secure connections and in the Host HTTP header.

    create_protocol defaults to WebSocketClientProtocol. It may be replaced by a wrapper or a subclass to customize the protocol that manages the connection.

    The behavior of ping_interval, ping_timeout, close_timeout, max_size, max_queue, read_limit, and write_limit is described in WebSocketClientProtocol.

    connect() also accepts the following optional arguments:

•   compression is a shortcut to configure compression extensions; by default it enables the "permessage-deflate" extension; set it to None to disable compression.

•   origin sets the Origin HTTP header.

•   extensions is a list of supported extensions in order of decreasing preference.

•   subprotocols is a list of supported subprotocols in order of decreasing preference.

•   extra_headers sets additional HTTP request headers; it can be a Headers instance, a Mapping, or an iterable of (name, value) pairs.

Raises

•   InvalidURI -- if uri is invalid

•   InvalidHandshake -- if the opening handshake fails

await websockets.client.unix_connect(path, uri='ws://localhost/', **kwargs)
    Similar to connect(), but for connecting to a Unix socket.

    This function calls the event loop's create_unix_connection() method.

    It is only available on Unix.

    It's mainly useful for debugging servers listening on Unix sockets.

Parameters

•   path (Optional[str]) -- file system path to the Unix socket

•   uri (str) -- WebSocket URI

Return type
    Connect

  Using a connection

class websockets.client.WebSocketClientProtocol(*, origin=None, extensions=None, subprotocols=None, extra_headers=None, **kwargs)
    Protocol subclass implementing a WebSocket client.

    WebSocketClientProtocol:

•   performs the opening handshake to establish the connection;

•   provides recv() and send() coroutines for receiving and sending messages;

•   deals with control frames automatically;

•   performs the closing handshake to terminate the connection.

    WebSocketClientProtocol supports asynchronous iteration:

    async for message in websocket:
        await process(message)

    The iterator yields incoming messages. It exits normally when the connection is closed with the close code 1000 (OK) or 1001 (going away). It raises a ConnectionClosedError exception when the connection is closed with any other code.

    Once the connection is open, a Ping frame is sent every ping_interval seconds. This serves as a keepalive. It helps keeping the connection open, especially in the presence of proxies with short timeouts on inactive connections. Set ping_interval to None to disable this behavior.

    If the corresponding Pong frame isn't received within ping_timeout seconds, the connection is considered unusable and is closed with code 1011. This ensures that the remote endpoint remains responsive. Set ping_timeout to None to disable this behavior.

    The close_timeout parameter defines a maximum wait time for completing the closing handshake and terminating the TCP connection. For legacy reasons, close() completes in at most 5 * close_timeout seconds.

    close_timeout needs to be a parameter of the protocol because websockets usually calls close() implicitly upon exit when connect() is used as a context manager.

    To apply a timeout to any other API, wrap it in wait_for().

    The max_size parameter enforces the maximum size for incoming messages in bytes. The default value is 1 MiB. None disables the limit. If a message larger than the maximum size is received, recv() will raise ConnectionClosedError and the connection will be closed with code 1009.

    The max_queue parameter sets the maximum length of the queue that holds incoming messages. The default value is 32. None disables the limit. Messages are added to an in-memory queue when they're received; then recv() pops from that queue. In order to prevent excessive memory consumption when messages are received faster than they can be processed, the queue must be bounded. If the queue fills up, the protocol stops processing incoming data until recv() is called. In this situation, various receive buffers (at least in asyncio and in the OS) will fill up, then the TCP receive window will shrink, slowing down transmission to avoid packet loss.

    Since Python can use up to 4 bytes of memory to represent a single character, each connection may use up to 4 * max_size * max_queue bytes of memory to store incoming messages. By default, this is 128 MiB. You may want to lower the limits, depending on your application's requirements.

    The read_limit argument sets the high-water limit of the buffer for incoming bytes. The low-water limit is half the high-water limit. The default value is 64 KiB, half of asyncio's default (based on the current implementation of StreamReader).

    The write_limit argument sets the high-water limit of the buffer for outgoing bytes. The low-water limit is a quarter of the high-water limit. The default value is 64 KiB, equal to asyncio's default (based on the current implementation of FlowControlMixin).

    As soon as the HTTP request and response in the opening handshake are processed:

•   the request path is available in the path attribute;

•   the request and response HTTP headers are available in the request_headers and response_headers attributes, which are Headers instances.

    If a subprotocol was negotiated, it's available in the subprotocol attribute.

    Once the connection is closed, the code is available in the close_code attribute and the reason in close_reason.

    All attributes must be treated as read-only.

local_address
    Local address of the connection as a (host, port) tuple.

    When the connection isn't open, local_address is None.

Return type
    Any

remote_address
    Remote address of the connection as a (host, port) tuple.

    When the connection isn't open, remote_address is None.

Return type
    Any

open
    True when the connection is usable.

    It may be used to detect disconnections. However, this approach is discouraged per the EAFP principle.

    When open is False, using the connection raises a ConnectionClosed exception.

Return type
    bool

closed
    True once the connection is closed.

    Be aware that both open and closed are False during the opening and closing sequences.

Return type
    bool

path
    Path of the HTTP request.

    Available once the connection is open.

request_headers
    HTTP request headers as a Headers instance.

    Available once the connection is open.

response_headers
    HTTP response headers as a Headers instance.

    Available once the connection is open.

subprotocol
    Subprotocol, if one was negotiated.

    Available once the connection is open.

close_code
    WebSocket close code.

    Available once the connection is closed.

close_reason
    WebSocket close reason.

    Available once the connection is closed.

await recv()
    Receive the next message.

    Return a str for a text frame and bytes for a binary frame.

    When the end of the message stream is reached, recv() raises ConnectionClosed. Specifically, it raises ConnectionClosedOK after a normal connection closure and ConnectionClosedError after a protocol error or a network failure.

    Canceling recv() is safe. There's no risk of losing the next message. The next invocation of recv() will return it. This makes it possible to enforce a timeout by wrapping recv() in wait_for().

Raises

•   ConnectionClosed -- when the connection is closed

•   RuntimeError -- if two coroutines call recv() concurrently

Return type
    Union[str, bytes]

await send(message)
    Send a message.

    A string (str) is sent as a Text frame. A bytestring or bytes-like object (bytes, bytearray, or memoryview) is sent as a Binary frame.

    send() also accepts an iterable or an asynchronous iterable of strings, bytestrings, or bytes-like objects. In that case the message is fragmented. Each item is treated as a message fragment and sent in its own frame. All items must be of the same type, or else send() will raise a TypeError and the connection will be closed.

    send() rejects dict-like objects because this is often an error. If you wish to send the keys of a dict-like object as fragments, call its keys() method and pass the result to send().

    Canceling send() is discouraged. Instead, you should close the connection with close(). Indeed, there are only two situations where send() may yield control to the event loop:

1.  The write buffer is full. If you don't want to wait until enough data is sent, your only alternative is to close the connection. close() will likely time out then abort the TCP connection.

2.  message is an asynchronous iterator that yields control. Stopping in the middle of a fragmented message will cause a protocol error. Closing the connection has the same effect.

Raises
    TypeError -- for unsupported inputs

Return type
    None

await ping(data=None)
    Send a ping.

    Return a Future that will be completed when the corresponding pong is received. You can ignore it if you don't intend to wait.

    A ping may serve as a keepalive or as a check that the remote endpoint received all messages up to this point:

    pong_waiter = await ws.ping()
    await pong_waiter  # only if you want to wait for the pong

    By default, the ping contains four random bytes. This payload may be overridden with the optional data argument which must be a string (which will be encoded to UTF-8) or a bytes-like object.

    Canceling ping() is discouraged. If ping() doesn't return immediately, it means the write buffer is full. If you don't want to wait, you should close the connection.

    Canceling the Future returned by ping() has no effect.

Return type
    Awaitable[None]

await pong(data=b'')
    Send a pong.

    An unsolicited pong may serve as a unidirectional heartbeat.

    The payload may be set with the optional data argument which must be a string (which will be encoded to UTF-8) or a bytes-like object.

    Canceling pong() is discouraged for the same reason as ping().

Return type
    None

await close(code=1000, reason='')
    Perform the closing handshake.

    close() waits for the other end to complete the handshake and for the TCP connection to terminate. As a consequence, there's no need to await wait_closed(); close() already does it.

    close() is idempotent: it doesn't do anything once the connection is closed.

    Wrapping close() in create_task() is safe, given that errors during connection termination aren't particularly useful.

    Canceling close() is discouraged. If it takes too long, you can set a shorter close_timeout. If you don't want to wait, let the Python process exit, then the OS will close the TCP connection.

Parameters

•   code (int) -- WebSocket close code

•   reason (str) -- WebSocket close reason

Return type
    None

await wait_closed()
    Wait until the connection is closed.

    This is identical to closed, except it can be awaited.

    This can make it easier to handle connection termination, regardless of its cause, in tasks that interact with the WebSocket connection.

Return type
    None

  Server

  Starting a server

await websockets.server.serve(ws_handler, host=None, port=None, *, create_protocol=None, ping_interval=20, ping_timeout=20, close_timeout=None, max_size=1048576, max_queue=32, read_limit=65536, write_limit=65536, loop=None, compression='deflate', origins=None, extensions=None, subprotocols=None, extra_headers=None, process_request=None, select_subprotocol=None, **kwargs)
    Create, start, and return a WebSocket server on host and port.

    Whenever a client connects, the server accepts the connection, creates a WebSocketServerProtocol, performs the opening handshake, and delegates to the connection handler defined by ws_handler. Once the handler completes, either normally or with an exception, the server performs the closing handshake and closes the connection.

    Awaiting serve() yields a WebSocketServer. This instance provides close() and wait_closed() methods for terminating the server and cleaning up its resources.

    When a server is closed with close(), it closes all connections with close code 1001 (going away). Connections handlers, which are running the ws_handler coroutine, will receive a ConnectionClosedOK exception on their current or next interaction with the WebSocket connection.

    serve() can also be used as an asynchronous context manager:

    stop = asyncio.Future()  # set this future to exit the server
    async with serve(...):
        await stop

    In this case, the server is shut down when exiting the context.

    serve() is a wrapper around the event loop's create_server() method. It creates and starts a asyncio.Server with create_server(). Then it wraps the asyncio.Server in a WebSocketServer and returns the WebSocketServer.

    ws_handler is the WebSocket handler. It must be a coroutine accepting two arguments: the WebSocket connection, which is an instance of WebSocketServerProtocol, and the path of the request.

    The host and port arguments, as well as unrecognized keyword arguments, are passed to create_server().

    For example, you can set the ssl keyword argument to a SSLContext to enable TLS.

    create_protocol defaults to WebSocketServerProtocol. It may be replaced by a wrapper or a subclass to customize the protocol that manages the connection.

    The behavior of ping_interval, ping_timeout, close_timeout, max_size, max_queue, read_limit, and write_limit is described in WebSocketServerProtocol.

    serve() also accepts the following optional arguments:

•   compression is a shortcut to configure compression extensions; by default it enables the "permessage-deflate" extension; set it to None to disable compression.

•   origins defines acceptable Origin HTTP headers; include None in the list if the lack of an origin is acceptable.

•   extensions is a list of supported extensions in order of decreasing preference.

•   subprotocols is a list of supported subprotocols in order of decreasing preference.

•   extra_headers sets additional HTTP response headers when the handshake succeeds; it can be a Headers instance, a Mapping, an iterable of (name, value) pairs, or a callable taking the request path and headers in arguments and returning one of the above.

•   process_request allows intercepting the HTTP request; it must be a coroutine taking the request path and headers in argument; see process_request() for details.

•   select_subprotocol allows customizing the logic for selecting a subprotocol; it must be a callable taking the subprotocols offered by the client and available on the server in argument; see select_subprotocol() for details.

    Since there's no useful way to propagate exceptions triggered in handlers, they're sent to the "websockets.server" logger instead. Debugging is much easier if you configure logging to print them:

    import logging
    logger = logging.getLogger("websockets.server")
    logger.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
    logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())

await websockets.server.unix_serve(ws_handler, path=None, **kwargs)
    Similar to serve(), but for listening on Unix sockets.

    This function calls the event loop's create_unix_server() method.

    It is only available on Unix.

    It's useful for deploying a server behind a reverse proxy such as nginx.

Parameters
    path (Optional[str]) -- file system path to the Unix socket

Return type
    Serve

  Stopping a server

class websockets.server.WebSocketServer(loop)
    WebSocket server returned by serve().

    This class provides the same interface as AbstractServer, namely the close() and wait_closed() methods.

    It keeps track of WebSocket connections in order to close them properly when shutting down.

    Instances of this class store a reference to the Server object returned by create_server() rather than inherit from Server in part because create_server() doesn't support passing a custom Server class.

sockets
    List of socket objects the server is listening to.

    None if the server is closed.

Return type
    Optional[List[socket]]

close()
    Close the server.

    This method:

•   closes the underlying Server;

•   rejects new WebSocket connections with an HTTP 503 (service unavailable) error; this happens when the server accepted the TCP connection but didn't complete the WebSocket opening handshake prior to closing;

•   closes open WebSocket connections with close code 1001 (going away).

    close() is idempotent.

Return type
    None

await wait_closed()
    Wait until the server is closed.

    When wait_closed() returns, all TCP connections are closed and all connection handlers have returned.

Return type
    None

  Using a connection

class websockets.server.WebSocketServerProtocol(ws_handler, ws_server, *, origins=None, extensions=None, subprotocols=None, extra_headers=None, process_request=None, select_subprotocol=None, **kwargs)
    Protocol subclass implementing a WebSocket server.

    WebSocketServerProtocol:

•   performs the opening handshake to establish the connection;

•   provides recv() and send() coroutines for receiving and sending messages;

•   deals with control frames automatically;

•   performs the closing handshake to terminate the connection.

    You may customize the opening handshake by subclassing WebSocketServer and overriding:

•   process_request() to intercept the client request before any processing and, if appropriate, to abort the WebSocket request and return a HTTP response instead;

•   select_subprotocol() to select a subprotocol, if the client and the server have multiple subprotocols in common and the default logic for choosing one isn't suitable (this is rarely needed).

    WebSocketServerProtocol supports asynchronous iteration:

    async for message in websocket:
        await process(message)

    The iterator yields incoming messages. It exits normally when the connection is closed with the close code 1000 (OK) or 1001 (going away). It raises a ConnectionClosedError exception when the connection is closed with any other code.

    Once the connection is open, a Ping frame is sent every ping_interval seconds. This serves as a keepalive. It helps keeping the connection open, especially in the presence of proxies with short timeouts on inactive connections. Set ping_interval to None to disable this behavior.

    If the corresponding Pong frame isn't received within ping_timeout seconds, the connection is considered unusable and is closed with code 1011. This ensures that the remote endpoint remains responsive. Set ping_timeout to None to disable this behavior.

    The close_timeout parameter defines a maximum wait time for completing the closing handshake and terminating the TCP connection. For legacy reasons, close() completes in at most 4 * close_timeout seconds.

    close_timeout needs to be a parameter of the protocol because websockets usually calls close() implicitly when the connection handler terminates.

    To apply a timeout to any other API, wrap it in wait_for().

    The max_size parameter enforces the maximum size for incoming messages in bytes. The default value is 1 MiB. None disables the limit. If a message larger than the maximum size is received, recv() will raise ConnectionClosedError and the connection will be closed with code 1009.

    The max_queue parameter sets the maximum length of the queue that holds incoming messages. The default value is 32. None disables the limit. Messages are added to an in-memory queue when they're received; then recv() pops from that queue. In order to prevent excessive memory consumption when messages are received faster than they can be processed, the queue must be bounded. If the queue fills up, the protocol stops processing incoming data until recv() is called. In this situation, various receive buffers (at least in asyncio and in the OS) will fill up, then the TCP receive window will shrink, slowing down transmission to avoid packet loss.

    Since Python can use up to 4 bytes of memory to represent a single character, each connection may use up to 4 * max_size * max_queue bytes of memory to store incoming messages. By default, this is 128 MiB. You may want to lower the limits, depending on your application's requirements.

    The read_limit argument sets the high-water limit of the buffer for incoming bytes. The low-water limit is half the high-water limit. The default value is 64 KiB, half of asyncio's default (based on the current implementation of StreamReader).

    The write_limit argument sets the high-water limit of the buffer for outgoing bytes. The low-water limit is a quarter of the high-water limit. The default value is 64 KiB, equal to asyncio's default (based on the current implementation of FlowControlMixin).

    As soon as the HTTP request and response in the opening handshake are processed:

•   the request path is available in the path attribute;

•   the request and response HTTP headers are available in the request_headers and response_headers attributes, which are Headers instances.

    If a subprotocol was negotiated, it's available in the subprotocol attribute.

    Once the connection is closed, the code is available in the close_code attribute and the reason in close_reason.

    All attributes must be treated as read-only.

local_address
    Local address of the connection as a (host, port) tuple.

    When the connection isn't open, local_address is None.

Return type
    Any

remote_address
    Remote address of the connection as a (host, port) tuple.

    When the connection isn't open, remote_address is None.

Return type
    Any

open
    True when the connection is usable.

    It may be used to detect disconnections. However, this approach is discouraged per the EAFP principle.

    When open is False, using the connection raises a ConnectionClosed exception.

Return type
    bool

closed
    True once the connection is closed.

    Be aware that both open and closed are False during the opening and closing sequences.

Return type
    bool

path
    Path of the HTTP request.

    Available once the connection is open.

request_headers
    HTTP request headers as a Headers instance.

    Available once the connection is open.

response_headers
    HTTP response headers as a Headers instance.

    Available once the connection is open.

subprotocol
    Subprotocol, if one was negotiated.

    Available once the connection is open.

close_code
    WebSocket close code.

    Available once the connection is closed.

close_reason
    WebSocket close reason.

    Available once the connection is closed.

await process_request(path, request_headers)
    Intercept the HTTP request and return an HTTP response if appropriate.

    If process_request returns None, the WebSocket handshake continues. If it returns 3-uple containing a status code, response headers and a response body, that HTTP response is sent and the connection is closed. In that case:

•   The HTTP status must be a HTTPStatus.

•   HTTP headers must be a Headers instance, a Mapping, or an iterable of (name, value) pairs.

•   The HTTP response body must be bytes. It may be empty.

    This coroutine may be overridden in a WebSocketServerProtocol subclass, for example:

•   to return a HTTP 200 OK response on a given path; then a load balancer can use this path for a health check;

•   to authenticate the request and return a HTTP 401 Unauthorized or a HTTP 403 Forbidden when authentication fails.

    Instead of subclassing, it is possible to override this method by passing a process_request argument to the serve() function or the WebSocketServerProtocol constructor. This is equivalent, except process_request won't have access to the protocol instance, so it can't store information for later use.

    process_request is expected to complete quickly. If it may run for a long time, then it should await wait_closed() and exit if wait_closed() completes, or else it could prevent the server from shutting down.

Parameters

•   path (str) -- request path, including optional query string

•   request_headers (Headers) -- request headers

Return type
    Optional[Tuple[HTTPStatus, Union[Headers, Mapping[str, str], Iterable[Tuple[str, str]]], bytes]]

select_subprotocol(client_subprotocols, server_subprotocols)
    Pick a subprotocol among those offered by the client.

    If several subprotocols are supported by the client and the server, the default implementation selects the preferred subprotocols by giving equal value to the priorities of the client and the server.

    If no subprotocol is supported by the client and the server, it proceeds without a subprotocol.

    This is unlikely to be the most useful implementation in practice, as many servers providing a subprotocol will require that the client uses that subprotocol. Such rules can be implemented in a subclass.

    Instead of subclassing, it is possible to override this method by passing a select_subprotocol argument to the serve() function or the WebSocketServerProtocol constructor.

Parameters

•   client_subprotocols (Sequence[NewType()(Subprotocol, str)]) -- list of subprotocols offered by the client

•   server_subprotocols (Sequence[NewType()(Subprotocol, str)]) -- list of subprotocols available on the server

Return type
    Optional[NewType()(Subprotocol, str)]

await recv()
    Receive the next message.

    Return a str for a text frame and bytes for a binary frame.

    When the end of the message stream is reached, recv() raises ConnectionClosed. Specifically, it raises ConnectionClosedOK after a normal connection closure and ConnectionClosedError after a protocol error or a network failure.

    Canceling recv() is safe. There's no risk of losing the next message. The next invocation of recv() will return it. This makes it possible to enforce a timeout by wrapping recv() in wait_for().

Raises

•   ConnectionClosed -- when the connection is closed

•   RuntimeError -- if two coroutines call recv() concurrently

Return type
    Union[str, bytes]

await send(message)
    Send a message.

    A string (str) is sent as a Text frame. A bytestring or bytes-like object (bytes, bytearray, or memoryview) is sent as a Binary frame.

    send() also accepts an iterable or an asynchronous iterable of strings, bytestrings, or bytes-like objects. In that case the message is fragmented. Each item is treated as a message fragment and sent in its own frame. All items must be of the same type, or else send() will raise a TypeError and the connection will be closed.

    send() rejects dict-like objects because this is often an error. If you wish to send the keys of a dict-like object as fragments, call its keys() method and pass the result to send().

    Canceling send() is discouraged. Instead, you should close the connection with close(). Indeed, there are only two situations where send() may yield control to the event loop:

1.  The write buffer is full. If you don't want to wait until enough data is sent, your only alternative is to close the connection. close() will likely time out then abort the TCP connection.

2.  message is an asynchronous iterator that yields control. Stopping in the middle of a fragmented message will cause a protocol error. Closing the connection has the same effect.

Raises
    TypeError -- for unsupported inputs

Return type
    None

await ping(data=None)
    Send a ping.

    Return a Future that will be completed when the corresponding pong is received. You can ignore it if you don't intend to wait.

    A ping may serve as a keepalive or as a check that the remote endpoint received all messages up to this point:

    pong_waiter = await ws.ping()
    await pong_waiter  # only if you want to wait for the pong

    By default, the ping contains four random bytes. This payload may be overridden with the optional data argument which must be a string (which will be encoded to UTF-8) or a bytes-like object.

    Canceling ping() is discouraged. If ping() doesn't return immediately, it means the write buffer is full. If you don't want to wait, you should close the connection.

    Canceling the Future returned by ping() has no effect.

Return type
    Awaitable[None]

await pong(data=b'')
    Send a pong.

    An unsolicited pong may serve as a unidirectional heartbeat.

    The payload may be set with the optional data argument which must be a string (which will be encoded to UTF-8) or a bytes-like object.

    Canceling pong() is discouraged for the same reason as ping().

Return type
    None

await close(code=1000, reason='')
    Perform the closing handshake.

    close() waits for the other end to complete the handshake and for the TCP connection to terminate. As a consequence, there's no need to await wait_closed(); close() already does it.

    close() is idempotent: it doesn't do anything once the connection is closed.

    Wrapping close() in create_task() is safe, given that errors during connection termination aren't particularly useful.

    Canceling close() is discouraged. If it takes too long, you can set a shorter close_timeout. If you don't want to wait, let the Python process exit, then the OS will close the TCP connection.

Parameters

•   code (int) -- WebSocket close code

•   reason (str) -- WebSocket close reason

Return type
    None

await wait_closed()
    Wait until the connection is closed.

    This is identical to closed, except it can be awaited.

    This can make it easier to handle connection termination, regardless of its cause, in tasks that interact with the WebSocket connection.

Return type
    None

  Basic authentication

websockets.auth.basic_auth_protocol_factory(realm, credentials=None, check_credentials=None, create_protocol=None)
    Protocol factory that enforces HTTP Basic Auth.

    basic_auth_protocol_factory is designed to integrate with serve() like this:

    websockets.serve(
        ...,
        create_protocol=websockets.basic_auth_protocol_factory(
            realm="my dev server",
            credentials=("hello", "iloveyou"),
        )
    )

    realm indicates the scope of protection. It should contain only ASCII characters because the encoding of non-ASCII characters is undefined. Refer to section 2.2 of RFC 7235 for details.

    credentials defines hard coded authorized credentials. It can be a (username, password) pair or a list of such pairs.

    check_credentials defines a coroutine that checks whether credentials are authorized. This coroutine receives username and password arguments and returns a bool.

    One of credentials or check_credentials must be provided but not both.

    By default, basic_auth_protocol_factory creates a factory for building BasicAuthWebSocketServerProtocol instances. You can override this with the create_protocol parameter.

Parameters

•   realm (str) -- scope of protection

•   credentials (Union[Tuple[str, str], Iterable[Tuple[str, str]], None]) -- hard coded credentials

•   check_credentials (Optional[Callable[[str, str], Awaitable[bool]]]) -- coroutine that verifies credentials

Raises
    TypeError -- if the credentials argument has the wrong type

Return type
    Callable[[Any], BasicAuthWebSocketServerProtocol]

class websockets.auth.BasicAuthWebSocketServerProtocol(*args, realm, check_credentials, **kwargs)
    WebSocket server protocol that enforces HTTP Basic Auth.

await process_request(path, request_headers)
    Check HTTP Basic Auth and return a HTTP 401 or 403 response if needed.

Return type
    Optional[Tuple[HTTPStatus, Union[Headers, Mapping[str, str], Iterable[Tuple[str, str]]], bytes]]

username
    Username of the authenticated user.

  Extensions

  Per-Message Deflate

websockets.extensions.permessage_deflate implements the Compression Extensions for WebSocket as specified in RFC 7692.

class websockets.extensions.permessage_deflate.ClientPerMessageDeflateFactory(server_no_context_takeover=False, client_no_context_takeover=False, server_max_window_bits=None, client_max_window_bits=None, compress_settings=None)
    Client-side extension factory for the Per-Message Deflate extension.

    Parameters behave as described in section 7.1 of RFC 7692. Set them to True to include them in the negotiation offer without a value or to an integer value to include them with this value.

Parameters

•   server_no_context_takeover (bool) -- defaults to False

•   client_no_context_takeover (bool) -- defaults to False

•   server_max_window_bits (Optional[int]) -- optional, defaults to None

•   client_max_window_bits (Union[int, bool, None]) -- optional, defaults to None

•   compress_settings (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) -- optional, keyword arguments for zlib.compressobj(), excluding wbits

class websockets.extensions.permessage_deflate.ServerPerMessageDeflateFactory(server_no_context_takeover=False, client_no_context_takeover=False, server_max_window_bits=None, client_max_window_bits=None, compress_settings=None)
    Server-side extension factory for the Per-Message Deflate extension.

    Parameters behave as described in section 7.1 of RFC 7692. Set them to True to include them in the negotiation offer without a value or to an integer value to include them with this value.

Parameters

•   server_no_context_takeover (bool) -- defaults to False

•   client_no_context_takeover (bool) -- defaults to False

•   server_max_window_bits (Optional[int]) -- optional, defaults to None

•   client_max_window_bits (Optional[int]) -- optional, defaults to None

•   compress_settings (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) -- optional, keyword arguments for zlib.compressobj(), excluding wbits

  Abstract classes

class websockets.extensions.Extension
    Abstract class for extensions.

decode(frame, *, max_size=None)
    Decode an incoming frame.

Parameters

•   frame (Frame) -- incoming frame

•   max_size (Optional[int]) -- maximum payload size in bytes

Return type
    Frame

encode(frame)
    Encode an outgoing frame.

Parameters
    frame (Frame) -- outgoing frame

Return type
    Frame

property name: ExtensionName
    Extension identifier.

Return type
    NewType()(ExtensionName, str)

class websockets.extensions.ClientExtensionFactory
    Abstract class for client-side extension factories.

get_request_params()
    Build request parameters.

    Return a list of (name, value) pairs.

Return type
    List[Tuple[str, Optional[str]]]

property name: ExtensionName
    Extension identifier.

Return type
    NewType()(ExtensionName, str)

process_response_params(params, accepted_extensions)
    Process response parameters received from the server.

Parameters

•   params (Sequence[Tuple[str, Optional[str]]]) -- list of (name, value) pairs.

•   accepted_extensions (Sequence[Extension]) -- list of previously accepted extensions.

Raises
    NegotiationError -- if parameters aren't acceptable

Return type
    Extension

class websockets.extensions.ServerExtensionFactory
    Abstract class for server-side extension factories.

property name: ExtensionName
    Extension identifier.

Return type
    NewType()(ExtensionName, str)

process_request_params(params, accepted_extensions)
    Process request parameters received from the client.

    To accept the offer, return a 2-uple containing:

•   response parameters: a list of (name, value) pairs

•   an extension: an instance of a subclass of Extension

Parameters

•   params (Sequence[Tuple[str, Optional[str]]]) -- list of (name, value) pairs.

•   accepted_extensions (Sequence[Extension]) -- list of previously accepted extensions.

Raises
    NegotiationError -- to reject the offer, if parameters aren't acceptable

Return type
    Tuple[List[Tuple[str, Optional[str]]], Extension]

  Utilities

  Data structures

websockets.datastructures defines a class for manipulating HTTP headers.

class websockets.datastructures.Headers(*args, **kwargs)
    Efficient data structure for manipulating HTTP headers.

    A list of (name, values) is inefficient for lookups.

    A dict doesn't suffice because header names are case-insensitive and multiple occurrences of headers with the same name are possible.

    Headers stores HTTP headers in a hybrid data structure to provide efficient insertions and lookups while preserving the original data.

    In order to account for multiple values with minimal hassle, Headers follows this logic:

•

When getting a header with headers[name]:

•   if there's no value, KeyError is raised;

•   if there's exactly one value, it's returned;

•   if there's more than one value, MultipleValuesError is raised.

•   When setting a header with headers[name] = value, the value is appended to the list of values for that header.

•   When deleting a header with del headers[name], all values for that header are removed (this is slow).

    Other methods for manipulating headers are consistent with this logic.

    As long as no header occurs multiple times, Headers behaves like dict, except keys are lower-cased to provide case-insensitivity.

    Two methods support manipulating multiple values explicitly:

•   get_all() returns a list of all values for a header;

•   raw_items() returns an iterator of (name, values) pairs.

clear()
    Remove all headers.

Return type
    None

get_all(key)
    Return the (possibly empty) list of all values for a header.

Parameters
    key (str) -- header name

Return type
    List[str]

raw_items()
    Return an iterator of all values as (name, value) pairs.

Return type
    Iterator[Tuple[str, str]]

exception websockets.datastructures.MultipleValuesError
    Exception raised when Headers has more than one value for a key.

  Exceptions

websockets.exceptions defines the following exception hierarchy:

•

WebSocketException

•

ConnectionClosed

•   ConnectionClosedError

•   ConnectionClosedOK

•

InvalidHandshake

•   SecurityError

•   InvalidMessage

•

InvalidHeader

•   InvalidHeaderFormat

•   InvalidHeaderValue

•   InvalidOrigin

•   InvalidUpgrade

•   InvalidStatusCode

•

NegotiationError

•   DuplicateParameter

•   InvalidParameterName

•   InvalidParameterValue

•   AbortHandshake

•   RedirectHandshake

•   InvalidState

•   InvalidURI

•   PayloadTooBig

•   ProtocolError

exception websockets.exceptions.AbortHandshake(status, headers, body=b'')
    Raised to abort the handshake on purpose and return a HTTP response.

    This exception is an implementation detail.

    The public API is process_request().

exception websockets.exceptions.ConnectionClosed(code, reason)
    Raised when trying to interact with a closed connection.

    Provides the connection close code and reason in its code and reason attributes respectively.

exception websockets.exceptions.ConnectionClosedError(code, reason)
    Like ConnectionClosed, when the connection terminated with an error.

    This means the close code is different from 1000 (OK) and 1001 (going away).

exception websockets.exceptions.ConnectionClosedOK(code, reason)
    Like ConnectionClosed, when the connection terminated properly.

    This means the close code is 1000 (OK) or 1001 (going away).

exception websockets.exceptions.DuplicateParameter(name)
    Raised when a parameter name is repeated in an extension header.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidHandshake
    Raised during the handshake when the WebSocket connection fails.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidHeader(name, value=None)
    Raised when a HTTP header doesn't have a valid format or value.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidHeaderFormat(name, error, header, pos)
    Raised when a HTTP header cannot be parsed.

    The format of the header doesn't match the grammar for that header.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidHeaderValue(name, value=None)
    Raised when a HTTP header has a wrong value.

    The format of the header is correct but a value isn't acceptable.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidMessage
    Raised when a handshake request or response is malformed.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidOrigin(origin)
    Raised when the Origin header in a request isn't allowed.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidParameterName(name)
    Raised when a parameter name in an extension header is invalid.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidParameterValue(name, value)
    Raised when a parameter value in an extension header is invalid.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidState
    Raised when an operation is forbidden in the current state.

    This exception is an implementation detail.

    It should never be raised in normal circumstances.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidStatusCode(status_code)
    Raised when a handshake response status code is invalid.

    The integer status code is available in the status_code attribute.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidURI(uri)
    Raised when connecting to an URI that isn't a valid WebSocket URI.

exception websockets.exceptions.InvalidUpgrade(name, value=None)
    Raised when the Upgrade or Connection header isn't correct.

exception websockets.exceptions.NegotiationError
    Raised when negotiating an extension fails.

exception websockets.exceptions.PayloadTooBig
    Raised when receiving a frame with a payload exceeding the maximum size.

exception websockets.exceptions.ProtocolError
    Raised when a frame breaks the protocol.

exception websockets.exceptions.RedirectHandshake(uri)
    Raised when a handshake gets redirected.

    This exception is an implementation detail.

exception websockets.exceptions.SecurityError
    Raised when a handshake request or response breaks a security rule.

    Security limits are hard coded.

exception websockets.exceptions.WebSocketException
    Base class for all exceptions defined by websockets.

websockets.exceptions.WebSocketProtocolError
    alias of websockets.exceptions.ProtocolError

  Types

websockets.typing.Origin(x)
    Value of a Origin header

websockets.typing.Subprotocol(x)
    Subprotocol value in a Sec-WebSocket-Protocol header

    All public APIs can be imported from the websockets package, unless noted otherwise. This convenience feature is incompatible with static code analysis tools such as mypy, though.

    Anything that isn't listed in this API documentation is a private API. There's no guarantees of behavior or backwards-compatibility for private APIs.

DISCUSSIONS

Get a deeper understanding of how websockets is built and why.

  Design

This document describes the design of websockets. It assumes familiarity with the specification of the WebSocket protocol in RFC 6455.

It's primarily intended at maintainers. It may also be useful for users who wish to understand what happens under the hood.

WARNING: Internals described in this document may change at any time.

Backwards compatibility is only guaranteed for public APIs.

  Lifecycle

  State

WebSocket connections go through a trivial state machine:

•   CONNECTING: initial state,

•   OPEN: when the opening handshake is complete,

•   CLOSING: when the closing handshake is started,

•   CLOSED: when the TCP connection is closed.

    Transitions happen in the following places:

•   CONNECTING -> OPEN: in connection_open() which runs when the opening handshake completes and the WebSocket connection is established — not to be confused with connection_made() which runs when the TCP connection is established;

•   OPEN -> CLOSING: in write_frame() immediately before sending a close frame; since receiving a close frame triggers sending a close frame, this does the right thing regardless of which side started the closing handshake; also in fail_connection() which duplicates a few lines of code from write_close_frame() and write_frame();

•   * -> CLOSED: in connection_lost() which is always called exactly once when the TCP connection is closed.

  Coroutines

The following diagram shows which coroutines are running at each stage of the connection lifecycle on the client side.

The lifecycle is identical on the server side, except inversion of control makes the equivalent of connect() implicit.

Coroutines shown in green are called by the application. Multiple coroutines may interact with the WebSocket connection concurrently.

Coroutines shown in gray manage the connection. When the opening handshake succeeds, connection_open() starts two tasks:

•   transfer_data_task runs transfer_data() which handles incoming data and lets recv() consume it. It may be canceled to terminate the connection. It never exits with an exception other than CancelledError. See data transfer below.

•   keepalive_ping_task runs keepalive_ping() which sends Ping frames at regular intervals and ensures that corresponding Pong frames are received. It is canceled when the connection terminates. It never exits with an exception other than CancelledError.

•   close_connection_task runs close_connection() which waits for the data transfer to terminate, then takes care of closing the TCP connection. It must not be canceled. It never exits with an exception. See connection termination below.

    Besides, fail_connection() starts the same close_connection_task when the opening handshake fails, in order to close the TCP connection.

    Splitting the responsibilities between two tasks makes it easier to guarantee that websockets can terminate connections:

•   within a fixed timeout,

•   without leaking pending tasks,

•   without leaking open TCP connections,

    regardless of whether the connection terminates normally or abnormally.

    transfer_data_task completes when no more data will be received on the connection. Under normal circumstances, it exits after exchanging close frames.

    close_connection_task completes when the TCP connection is closed.

  Opening handshake

websockets performs the opening handshake when establishing a WebSocket connection. On the client side, connect() executes it before returning the protocol to the caller. On the server side, it's executed before passing the protocol to the ws_handler coroutine handling the connection.

While the opening handshake is asymmetrical — the client sends an HTTP Upgrade request and the server replies with an HTTP Switching Protocols response — websockets aims at keeping the implementation of both sides consistent with one another.

On the client side, handshake():

•   builds a HTTP request based on the uri and parameters passed to connect();

•   writes the HTTP request to the network;

•   reads a HTTP response from the network;

•   checks the HTTP response, validates extensions and subprotocol, and configures the protocol accordingly;

•   moves to the OPEN state.

    On the server side, handshake():

•   reads a HTTP request from the network;

•   calls process_request() which may abort the WebSocket handshake and return a HTTP response instead; this hook only makes sense on the server side;

•   checks the HTTP request, negotiates extensions and subprotocol, and configures the protocol accordingly;

•   builds a HTTP response based on the above and parameters passed to serve();

•   writes the HTTP response to the network;

•   moves to the OPEN state;

•   returns the path part of the uri.

    The most significant asymmetry between the two sides of the opening handshake lies in the negotiation of extensions and, to a lesser extent, of the subprotocol. The server knows everything about both sides and decides what the parameters should be for the connection. The client merely applies them.

    If anything goes wrong during the opening handshake, websockets fails the connection.

  Data transfer

  Symmetry

Once the opening handshake has completed, the WebSocket protocol enters the data transfer phase. This part is almost symmetrical. There are only two differences between a server and a client:

•   client-to-server masking: the client masks outgoing frames; the server unmasks incoming frames;

•   closing the TCP connection: the server closes the connection immediately; the client waits for the server to do it.

    These differences are so minor that all the logic for data framing, for sending and receiving data and for closing the connection is implemented in the same class, WebSocketCommonProtocol.

    The is_client attribute tells which side a protocol instance is managing. This attribute is defined on the WebSocketServerProtocol and WebSocketClientProtocol classes.

  Data flow

The following diagram shows how data flows between an application built on top of websockets and a remote endpoint. It applies regardless of which side is the server or the client.

Public methods are shown in green, private methods in yellow, and buffers in orange. Methods related to connection termination are omitted; connection termination is discussed in another section below.

  Receiving data

The left side of the diagram shows how websockets receives data.

Incoming data is written to a StreamReader in order to implement flow control and provide backpressure on the TCP connection.

transfer_data_task, which is started when the WebSocket connection is established, processes this data.

When it receives data frames, it reassembles fragments and puts the resulting messages in the messages queue.

When it encounters a control frame:

•   if it's a close frame, it starts the closing handshake;

•   if it's a ping frame, it answers with a pong frame;

•   if it's a pong frame, it acknowledges the corresponding ping (unless it's an unsolicited pong).

    Running this process in a task guarantees that control frames are processed promptly. Without such a task, websockets would depend on the application to drive the connection by having exactly one coroutine awaiting recv() at any time. While this happens naturally in many use cases, it cannot be relied upon.

    Then recv() fetches the next message from the messages queue, with some complexity added for handling backpressure and termination correctly.

  Sending data

The right side of the diagram shows how websockets sends data.

send() writes one or several data frames containing the message. While sending a fragmented message, concurrent calls to send() are put on hold until all fragments are sent. This makes concurrent calls safe.

ping() writes a ping frame and yields a Future which will be completed when a matching pong frame is received.

pong() writes a pong frame.

close() writes a close frame and waits for the TCP connection to terminate.

Outgoing data is written to a StreamWriter in order to implement flow control and provide backpressure from the TCP connection.

  Closing handshake

When the other side of the connection initiates the closing handshake, read_message() receives a close frame while in the OPEN state. It moves to the CLOSING state, sends a close frame, and returns None, causing transfer_data_task to terminate.

When this side of the connection initiates the closing handshake with close(), it moves to the CLOSING state and sends a close frame. When the other side sends a close frame, read_message() receives it in the CLOSING state and returns None, also causing transfer_data_task to terminate.

If the other side doesn't send a close frame within the connection's close timeout, websockets fails the connection.

The closing handshake can take up to 2 * close_timeout: one close_timeout to write a close frame and one close_timeout to receive a close frame.

Then websockets terminates the TCP connection.

  Connection termination

close_connection_task, which is started when the WebSocket connection is established, is responsible for eventually closing the TCP connection.

First close_connection_task waits for transfer_data_task to terminate, which may happen as a result of:

•   a successful closing handshake: as explained above, this exits the infinite loop in transfer_data_task;

•   a timeout while waiting for the closing handshake to complete: this cancels transfer_data_task;

•   a protocol error, including connection errors: depending on the exception, transfer_data_task fails the connection with a suitable code and exits.

    close_connection_task is separate from transfer_data_task to make it easier to implement the timeout on the closing handshake. Canceling transfer_data_task creates no risk of canceling close_connection_task and failing to close the TCP connection, thus leaking resources.

    Then close_connection_task cancels keepalive_ping. This task has no protocol compliance responsibilities. Terminating it to avoid leaking it is the only concern.

    Terminating the TCP connection can take up to 2 * close_timeout on the server side and 3 * close_timeout on the client side. Clients start by waiting for the server to close the connection, hence the extra close_timeout. Then both sides go through the following steps until the TCP connection is lost: half-closing the connection (only for non-TLS connections), closing the connection, aborting the connection. At this point the connection drops regardless of what happens on the network.

  Connection failure

If the opening handshake doesn't complete successfully, websockets fails the connection by closing the TCP connection.

Once the opening handshake has completed, websockets fails the connection by canceling transfer_data_task and sending a close frame if appropriate.

transfer_data_task exits, unblocking close_connection_task, which closes the TCP connection.

  Server shutdown

WebSocketServer closes asynchronously like asyncio.Server. The shutdown happen in two steps:

1.  Stop listening and accepting new connections;

2.  Close established connections with close code 1001 (going away) or, if the opening handshake is still in progress, with HTTP status code 503 (Service Unavailable).

    The first call to close starts a task that performs this sequence. Further calls are ignored. This is the easiest way to make close and wait_closed idempotent.

  Cancellation

  User code

websockets provides a WebSocket application server. It manages connections and passes them to user-provided connection handlers. This is an inversion of control scenario: library code calls user code.

If a connection drops, the corresponding handler should terminate. If the server shuts down, all connection handlers must terminate. Canceling connection handlers would terminate them.

However, using cancellation for this purpose would require all connection handlers to handle it properly. For example, if a connection handler starts some tasks, it should catch CancelledError, terminate or cancel these tasks, and then re-raise the exception.

Cancellation is tricky in asyncio applications, especially when it interacts with finalization logic. In the example above, what if a handler gets interrupted with CancelledError while it's finalizing the tasks it started, after detecting that the connection dropped?

websockets considers that cancellation may only be triggered by the caller of a coroutine when it doesn't care about the results of that coroutine anymore. (Source: Guido van Rossum). Since connection handlers run arbitrary user code, websockets has no way of deciding whether that code is still doing something worth caring about.

For these reasons, websockets never cancels connection handlers. Instead it expects them to detect when the connection is closed, execute finalization logic if needed, and exit.

Conversely, cancellation isn't a concern for WebSocket clients because they don't involve inversion of control.

  Library

Most public APIs of websockets are coroutines. They may be canceled, for example if the user starts a task that calls these coroutines and cancels the task later. websockets must handle this situation.

Cancellation during the opening handshake is handled like any other exception: the TCP connection is closed and the exception is re-raised. This can only happen on the client side. On the server side, the opening handshake is managed by websockets and nothing results in a cancellation.

Once the WebSocket connection is established, internal tasks transfer_data_task and close_connection_task mustn't get accidentally canceled if a coroutine that awaits them is canceled. In other words, they must be shielded from cancellation.

recv() waits for the next message in the queue or for transfer_data_task to terminate, whichever comes first. It relies on wait() for waiting on two futures in parallel. As a consequence, even though it's waiting on a Future signaling the next message and on transfer_data_task, it doesn't propagate cancellation to them.

ensure_open() is called by send(), ping(), and pong(). When the connection state is CLOSING, it waits for transfer_data_task but shields it to prevent cancellation.

close() waits for the data transfer task to terminate with wait_for(). If it's canceled or if the timeout elapses, transfer_data_task is canceled, which is correct at this point. close() then waits for close_connection_task but shields it to prevent cancellation.

close() and fail_connection() are the only places where transfer_data_task may be canceled.

close_connnection_task starts by waiting for transfer_data_task. It catches CancelledError to prevent a cancellation of transfer_data_task from propagating to close_connnection_task.

  Backpressure

NOTE: This section discusses backpressure from the perspective of a server but the concept applies to clients symmetrically.

With a naive implementation, if a server receives inputs faster than it can process them, or if it generates outputs faster than it can send them, data accumulates in buffers, eventually causing the server to run out of memory and crash.

The solution to this problem is backpressure. Any part of the server that receives inputs faster than it can process them and send the outputs must propagate that information back to the previous part in the chain.

websockets is designed to make it easy to get backpressure right.

For incoming data, websockets builds upon StreamReader which propagates backpressure to its own buffer and to the TCP stream. Frames are parsed from the input stream and added to a bounded queue. If the queue fills up, parsing halts until the application reads a frame.

For outgoing data, websockets builds upon StreamWriter which implements flow control. If the output buffers grow too large, it waits until they're drained. That's why all APIs that write frames are asynchronous.

Of course, it's still possible for an application to create its own unbounded buffers and break the backpressure. Be careful with queues.

  Buffers

NOTE: This section discusses buffers from the perspective of a server but it applies to clients as well.

An asynchronous systems works best when its buffers are almost always empty.

For example, if a client sends data too fast for a server, the queue of incoming messages will be constantly full. The server will always be 32 messages (by default) behind the client. This consumes memory and increases latency for no good reason. The problem is called bufferbloat.

If buffers are almost always full and that problem cannot be solved by adding capacity — typically because the system is bottlenecked by the output and constantly regulated by backpressure — reducing the size of buffers minimizes negative consequences.

By default websockets has rather high limits. You can decrease them according to your application's characteristics.

Bufferbloat can happen at every level in the stack where there is a buffer. For each connection, the receiving side contains these buffers:

•   OS buffers: tuning them is an advanced optimization.

•   StreamReader bytes buffer: the default limit is 64 KiB. You can set another limit by passing a read_limit keyword argument to connect() or serve().

•   Incoming messages deque: its size depends both on the size and the number of messages it contains. By default the maximum UTF-8 encoded size is 1 MiB and the maximum number is 32. In the worst case, after UTF-8 decoding, a single message could take up to 4 MiB of memory and the overall memory consumption could reach 128 MiB. You should adjust these limits by setting the max_size and max_queue keyword arguments of connect() or serve() according to your application's requirements.

    For each connection, the sending side contains these buffers:

•   StreamWriter bytes buffer: the default size is 64 KiB. You can set another limit by passing a write_limit keyword argument to connect() or serve().

•   OS buffers: tuning them is an advanced optimization.

  Concurrency

Awaiting any combination of recv(), send(), close() ping(), or pong() concurrently is safe, including multiple calls to the same method, with one exception and one limitation.

•   Only one coroutine can receive messages at a time. This constraint avoids non-deterministic behavior (and simplifies the implementation). If a coroutine is awaiting recv(), awaiting it again in another coroutine raises RuntimeError.

•   Sending a fragmented message forces serialization. Indeed, the WebSocket protocol doesn't support multiplexing messages. If a coroutine is awaiting send() to send a fragmented message, awaiting it again in another coroutine waits until the first call completes. This will be transparent in many cases. It may be a concern if the fragmented message is generated slowly by an asynchronous iterator.

    Receiving frames is independent from sending frames. This isolates recv(), which receives frames, from the other methods, which send frames.

    While the connection is open, each frame is sent with a single write. Combined with the concurrency model of asyncio, this enforces serialization. The only other requirement is to prevent interleaving other data frames in the middle of a fragmented message.

    After the connection is closed, sending a frame raises ConnectionClosed, which is safe.

  Limitations

The client doesn't attempt to guarantee that there is no more than one connection to a given IP address in a CONNECTING state.

The client doesn't support connecting through a proxy.

There is no way to fragment outgoing messages. A message is always sent in a single frame.

  Security

  Encryption

For production use, a server should require encrypted connections.

See this example of encrypting connections with TLS.

  Memory use

WARNING: An attacker who can open an arbitrary number of connections will be able to perform a denial of service by memory exhaustion. If you're concerned by denial of service attacks, you must reject suspicious connections before they reach websockets, typically in a reverse proxy.

With the default settings, opening a connection uses 325 KiB of memory.

Sending some highly compressed messages could use up to 128 MiB of memory with an amplification factor of 1000 between network traffic and memory use.

Configuring a server to optimize memory usage will improve security in addition to improving performance.

  Other limits

websockets implements additional limits on the amount of data it accepts in order to minimize exposure to security vulnerabilities.

In the opening handshake, websockets limits the number of HTTP headers to 256 and the size of an individual header to 4096 bytes. These limits are 10 to 20 times larger than what's expected in standard use cases. They're hard-coded. If you need to change them, monkey-patch the constants in websockets.http.

PROJECT

This is about websockets-the-project rather than websockets-the-software.

  Changelog

  Backwards-compatibility policy

websockets is intended for production use. Therefore, stability is a goal.

websockets also aims at providing the best API for WebSocket in Python.

While we value stability, we value progress more. When an improvement requires changing a public API, we make the change and document it in this changelog.

When possible with reasonable effort, we preserve backwards-compatibility for five years after the release that introduced the change.

When a release contains backwards-incompatible API changes, the major version is increased, else the minor version is increased. Patch versions are only for fixing regressions shortly after a release.

Only documented APIs are public. Undocumented APIs are considered private. They may change at any time.

  9.1

May 27, 2021

NOTE: Version 9.1 fixes a security issue introduced in version 8.0.

Version 8.0 was vulnerable to timing attacks on HTTP Basic Auth passwords.

  9.0.2

May 15, 2021

•   Restored compatibility of python -m websockets with Python < 3.9.

•   Restored compatibility with mypy.

  9.0.1

May 2, 2021

•   Fixed issues with the packaging of the 9.0 release.

  9.0

May 1, 2021

NOTE: Version 9.0 moves or deprecates several APIs.

Aliases provide backwards compatibility for all previously public APIs.

•   Headers and MultipleValuesError were moved from websockets.http to websockets.datastructures. If you're using them, you should adjust the import path.

•   The client, server, protocol, and auth modules were moved from the websockets package to websockets.legacy sub-package, as part of an upcoming refactoring. Despite the name, they're still fully supported. The refactoring should be a transparent upgrade for most uses when it's available. The legacy implementation will be preserved according to the backwards-compatibility policy.

•   The framing, handshake, headers, http, and uri modules in the websockets package are deprecated. These modules provided low-level APIs for reuse by other WebSocket implementations, but that never happened. Keeping these APIs public makes it more difficult to improve websockets for no actual benefit.

    NOTE: Version 9.0 may require changes if you use static code analysis tools.

    Convenience imports from the websockets module are performed lazily. While this is supported by Python, static code analysis tools such as mypy are unable to understand the behavior.

    If you depend on such tools, use the real import path, which can be found in the API documentation:

    from websockets.client import connect
    from websockets.server import serve

•   Added compatibility with Python 3.9.

•   Added support for IRIs in addition to URIs.

•   Added close codes 1012, 1013, and 1014.

•   Raised an error when passing a dict to send().

•   Fixed sending fragmented, compressed messages.

•   Fixed Host header sent when connecting to an IPv6 address.

•   Fixed creating a client or a server with an existing Unix socket.

•   Aligned maximum cookie size with popular web browsers.

•   Ensured cancellation always propagates, even on Python versions where CancelledError inherits Exception.

•   Improved error reporting.

  8.1

November 1, 2019

•   Added compatibility with Python 3.8.

  8.0.2

July 31, 2019

•   Restored the ability to pass a socket with the sock parameter of serve().

•   Removed an incorrect assertion when a connection drops.

  8.0.1

July 21, 2019

•   Restored the ability to import WebSocketProtocolError from websockets.

  8.0

July 7, 2019

WARNING: Version 8.0 drops compatibility with Python 3.4 and 3.5.

NOTE: Version 8.0 expects process_request to be a coroutine.

Previously, it could be a function or a coroutine.

If you're passing a process_request argument to serve() or WebSocketServerProtocol, or if you're overriding process_request() in a subclass, define it with async def instead of def.

For backwards compatibility, functions are still mostly supported, but mixing functions and coroutines won't work in some inheritance scenarios.

NOTE: Version 8.0 changes the behavior of the max_queue parameter.

If you were setting max_queue=0 to make the queue of incoming messages unbounded, change it to max_queue=None.

NOTE: Version 8.0 deprecates the host , port , and secure attributes of WebSocketCommonProtocol.

Use local_address in servers and remote_address in clients instead of host and port.

NOTE: Version 8.0 renames the WebSocketProtocolError exception to ProtocolError .

A WebSocketProtocolError alias provides backwards compatibility.

NOTE: Version 8.0 adds the reason phrase to the return type of the low-level API read_response() .

Also:

•   send(), ping(), and pong() support bytes-like types bytearray and memoryview in addition to bytes.

•   Added ConnectionClosedOK and ConnectionClosedError subclasses of ConnectionClosed to tell apart normal connection termination from errors.

•   Added basic_auth_protocol_factory() to enforce HTTP Basic Auth on the server side.

•   connect() handles redirects from the server during the handshake.

•   connect() supports overriding host and port.

•   Added unix_connect() for connecting to Unix sockets.

•   Improved support for sending fragmented messages by accepting asynchronous iterators in send().

•   Prevented spurious log messages about ConnectionClosed exceptions in keepalive ping task. If you were using ping_timeout=None as a workaround, you can remove it.

•   Changed WebSocketServer.close() to perform a proper closing handshake instead of failing the connection.

•   Avoided a crash when a extra_headers callable returns None.

•   Improved error messages when HTTP parsing fails.

•   Enabled readline in the interactive client.

•   Added type hints (PEP 484).

•   Added a FAQ to the documentation.

•   Added documentation for extensions.

•   Documented how to optimize memory usage.

•   Improved API documentation.

  7.0

November 1, 2018

WARNING: websockets now sends Ping frames at regular intervals and closes the connection if it doesn't receive a matching Pong frame.

See WebSocketCommonProtocol for details.

WARNING: Version 7.0 changes how a server terminates connections when it's closed with WebSocketServer.close() .

Previously, connections handlers were canceled. Now, connections are closed with close code 1001 (going away). From the perspective of the connection handler, this is the same as if the remote endpoint was disconnecting. This removes the need to prepare for CancelledError in connection handlers.

You can restore the previous behavior by adding the following line at the beginning of connection handlers:

def handler(websocket, path):
    closed = asyncio.ensure_future(websocket.wait_closed())
    closed.add_done_callback(lambda task: task.cancel())

NOTE: Version 7.0 renames the timeout argument of serve() and connect() to close_timeout .

This prevents confusion with ping_timeout.

For backwards compatibility, timeout is still supported.

NOTE: Version 7.0 changes how a ping() that hasn't received a pong yet behaves when the connection is closed.

The ping — as in ping = await websocket.ping() — used to be canceled when the connection is closed, so that await ping raised CancelledError. Now await ping raises ConnectionClosed like other public APIs.

NOTE: Version 7.0 raises a RuntimeError exception if two coroutines call recv() concurrently.

Concurrent calls lead to non-deterministic behavior because there are no guarantees about which coroutine will receive which message.

Also:

•   Added process_request and select_subprotocol arguments to serve() and WebSocketServerProtocol to customize process_request() and select_subprotocol() without subclassing WebSocketServerProtocol.

•   Added support for sending fragmented messages.

•   Added the wait_closed() method to protocols.

•   Added an interactive client: python -m websockets <uri>.

•   Changed the origins argument to represent the lack of an origin with None rather than ''.

•   Fixed a data loss bug in recv(): canceling it at the wrong time could result in messages being dropped.

•   Improved handling of multiple HTTP headers with the same name.

•   Improved error messages when a required HTTP header is missing.

  6.0

July 16, 2018

WARNING: Version 6.0 introduces the Headers class for managing HTTP headers and changes several public APIs:

•   process_request() now receives a Headers instead of a http.client.HTTPMessage in the request_headers argument.

•   The request_headers and response_headers attributes of WebSocketCommonProtocol are Headers instead of http.client.HTTPMessage.

•   The raw_request_headers and raw_response_headers attributes of WebSocketCommonProtocol are removed. Use raw_items() instead.

•   Functions defined in the handshake module now receive Headers in argument instead of get_header or set_header functions. This affects libraries that rely on low-level APIs.

•   Functions defined in the http module now return HTTP headers as Headers instead of lists of (name, value) pairs.

    Since Headers and http.client.HTTPMessage provide similar APIs, this change won't affect most of the code dealing with HTTP headers.

    Also:

•   Added compatibility with Python 3.7.

  5.0.1

May 24, 2018

•   Fixed a regression in 5.0 that broke some invocations of serve() and connect().

  5.0

May 22, 2018

NOTE: Version 5.0 fixes a security issue introduced in version 4.0.

Version 4.0 was vulnerable to denial of service by memory exhaustion because it didn't enforce max_size when decompressing compressed messages (CVE-2018-1000518).

NOTE: Version 5.0 adds a user_info field to the return value of parse_uri() and WebSocketURI .

If you're unpacking WebSocketURI into four variables, adjust your code to account for that fifth field.

Also:

•   connect() performs HTTP Basic Auth when the URI contains credentials.

•   Iterating on incoming messages no longer raises an exception when the connection terminates with close code 1001 (going away).

•   A plain HTTP request now receives a 426 Upgrade Required response and doesn't log a stack trace.

•   unix_serve() can be used as an asynchronous context manager on Python ≥ 3.5.1.

•   Added the closed property to protocols.

•   If a ping() doesn't receive a pong, it's canceled when the connection is closed.

•   Reported the cause of ConnectionClosed exceptions.

•   Added new examples in the documentation.

•   Updated documentation with new features from Python 3.6.

•   Improved several other sections of the documentation.

•   Fixed missing close code, which caused TypeError on connection close.

•   Fixed a race condition in the closing handshake that raised InvalidState.

•   Stopped logging stack traces when the TCP connection dies prematurely.

•   Prevented writing to a closing TCP connection during unclean shutdowns.

•   Made connection termination more robust to network congestion.

•   Prevented processing of incoming frames after failing the connection.

  4.0.1

November 2, 2017

•   Fixed issues with the packaging of the 4.0 release.

  4.0

November 2, 2017

WARNING: Version 4.0 drops compatibility with Python 3.3.

NOTE: Version 4.0 enables compression with the permessage-deflate extension.

In August 2017, Firefox and Chrome support it, but not Safari and IE.

Compression should improve performance but it increases RAM and CPU use.

If you want to disable compression, add compression=None when calling serve() or connect().

NOTE: Version 4.0 removes the state_name attribute of protocols.

Use protocol.state.name instead of protocol.state_name.

Also:

•   WebSocketCommonProtocol instances can be used as asynchronous iterators on Python ≥ 3.6. They yield incoming messages.

•   Added unix_serve() for listening on Unix sockets.

•   Added the sockets attribute to the return value of serve().

•   Reorganized and extended documentation.

•   Aborted connections if they don't close within the configured timeout.

•   Rewrote connection termination to increase robustness in edge cases.

•   Stopped leaking pending tasks when cancel() is called on a connection while it's being closed.

•   Reduced verbosity of "Failing the WebSocket connection" logs.

•   Allowed extra_headers to override Server and User-Agent headers.

  3.4

August 20, 2017

•   Renamed serve() and connect()'s klass argument to create_protocol to reflect that it can also be a callable. For backwards compatibility, klass is still supported.

•   serve() can be used as an asynchronous context manager on Python ≥ 3.5.1.

•   Added support for customizing handling of incoming connections with process_request().

•   Made read and write buffer sizes configurable.

•   Rewrote HTTP handling for simplicity and performance.

•   Added an optional C extension to speed up low-level operations.

•   An invalid response status code during connect() now raises InvalidStatusCode with a code attribute.

•   Providing a sock argument to connect() no longer crashes.

  3.3

March 29, 2017

•   Ensured compatibility with Python 3.6.

•   Reduced noise in logs caused by connection resets.

•   Avoided crashing on concurrent writes on slow connections.

  3.2

August 17, 2016

•   Added timeout, max_size, and max_queue arguments to connect() and serve().

•   Made server shutdown more robust.

  3.1

April 21, 2016

•   Avoided a warning when closing a connection before the opening handshake.

•   Added flow control for incoming data.

  3.0

December 25, 2015

WARNING: Version 3.0 introduces a backwards-incompatible change in the recv() API.

If you're upgrading from 2.x or earlier, please read this carefully.

recv() used to return None when the connection was closed. This required checking the return value of every call:

message = await websocket.recv()
if message is None:
    return

Now it raises a ConnectionClosed exception instead. This is more Pythonic. The previous code can be simplified to:

message = await websocket.recv()

When implementing a server, which is the more popular use case, there's no strong reason to handle such exceptions. Let them bubble up, terminate the handler coroutine, and the server will simply ignore them.

In order to avoid stranding projects built upon an earlier version, the previous behavior can be restored by passing legacy_recv=True to serve(), connect(), WebSocketServerProtocol, or WebSocketClientProtocol. legacy_recv isn't documented in their signatures but isn't scheduled for deprecation either.

Also:

•   connect() can be used as an asynchronous context manager on Python ≥ 3.5.1.

•   Updated documentation with await and async syntax from Python 3.5.

•   ping() and pong() support data passed as str in addition to bytes.

•   Worked around an asyncio bug affecting connection termination under load.

•   Made state_name attribute on protocols a public API.

•   Improved documentation.

  2.7

November 18, 2015

•   Added compatibility with Python 3.5.

•   Refreshed documentation.

  2.6

August 18, 2015

•   Added local_address and remote_address attributes on protocols.

•   Closed open connections with code 1001 when a server shuts down.

•   Avoided TCP fragmentation of small frames.

  2.5

July 28, 2015

•   Improved documentation.

•   Provided access to handshake request and response HTTP headers.

•   Allowed customizing handshake request and response HTTP headers.

•   Added support for running on a non-default event loop.

•   Returned a 403 status code instead of 400 when the request Origin isn't allowed.

•   Canceling recv() no longer drops the next message.

•   Clarified that the closing handshake can be initiated by the client.

•   Set the close code and reason more consistently.

•   Strengthened connection termination by simplifying the implementation.

•   Improved tests, added tox configuration, and enforced 100% branch coverage.

  2.4

January 31, 2015

•   Added support for subprotocols.

•   Added loop argument to connect() and serve().

  2.3

November 3, 2014

•   Improved compliance of close codes.

  2.2

July 28, 2014

•   Added support for limiting message size.

  2.1

April 26, 2014

•   Added host, port and secure attributes on protocols.

•   Added support for providing and checking Origin.

  2.0

February 16, 2014

WARNING: Version 2.0 introduces a backwards-incompatible change in the send(), ping(), and pong() APIs.

If you're upgrading from 1.x or earlier, please read this carefully.

These APIs used to be functions. Now they're coroutines.

Instead of:

websocket.send(message)

you must now write:

await websocket.send(message)

Also:

•   Added flow control for outgoing data.

  1.0

November 14, 2013

•   Initial public release.

  Contributing

Thanks for taking the time to contribute to websockets!

  Code of Conduct

This project and everyone participating in it is governed by the Code of Conduct. By participating, you are expected to uphold this code. Please report inappropriate behavior to aymeric DOT augustin AT fractalideas DOT com.

(If I'm the person with the inappropriate behavior, please accept my apologies. I know I can mess up. I can't expect you to tell me, but if you choose to do so, I'll do my best to handle criticism constructively. -- Aymeric)

  Contributions

Bug reports, patches and suggestions are welcome!

Please open an issue or send a pull request.

Feedback about the documentation is especially valuable — the authors of websockets feel more confident about writing code than writing docs :-)

If you're wondering why things are done in a certain way, the design document provides lots of details about the internals of websockets.

  Questions

GitHub issues aren't a good medium for handling questions. There are better places to ask questions, for example Stack Overflow.

If you want to ask a question anyway, please make sure that:

•   it's a question about websockets and not about asyncio;

•   it isn't answered by the documentation;

•   it wasn't asked already.

    A good question can be written as a suggestion to improve the documentation.

  Bitcoin users

websockets appears to be quite popular for interfacing with Bitcoin or other cryptocurrency trackers. I'm strongly opposed to Bitcoin's carbon footprint.

I'm aware of efforts to build proof-of-stake models. I'll care once the total carbon footprint of all cryptocurrencies drops to a non-bullshit level.

Please stop heating the planet where my children are supposed to live, thanks.

Since websockets is released under an open-source license, you can use it for any purpose you like. However, I won't spend any of my time to help.

I will summarily close issues related to Bitcoin or cryptocurrency in any way.

  License

Copyright (c) 2013-2021 Aymeric Augustin and contributors.
All rights reserved.
Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
    * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
      this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
    * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
      this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
      and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
    * Neither the name of websockets nor the names of its contributors may
      be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without
      specific prior written permission.
THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

  websockets for enterprise

  Available as part of the Tidelift Subscription
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AUTHOR
Aymeric Augustin

COPYRIGHT
2013-2021, Aymeric Augustin and contributors